Comprehensive Plan to Improve Human Resources Essay

Whole Foods Market- a company that doesn’t think of itself as a company, but as a community of people working to make a difference in the world. At Whole Foods, the mission matters as much as the bottom line. But who is Whole Foods Market, and how does their Human Resource Management (HRM) play a role in the development of their culture or work environment? This comprehensive plan will describe Whole Foods Market’s history and the challenges and/or opportunities of the company. It will explore the effectiveness of the organizations current human resource practices with regard to the employees and describe strategies to improve the quality of those practices. Additionally, the impact of implementing the strategic improvements and how the organization would measure success upon implementation will be discussed. Whole Foods Market: The Organization Whole Foods Market is the world’s leader in natural and organic foods. With more than 270 stores in North America and the United Kingdom, the organization seeks out the best natural and organic foods obtainable; while preserving better-quality standards in the industry. According to Porter and Kramer (2009), the intention of the organization is to sell organic, natural, and healthy food products to its consumers who are passionate about food and the environment. Whole Foods Market focuses on unrefined foods, health and nutrition. They are definitely not like any other grocery store. Their ultimate goal is to become an international brand identical with not just natural and organic goods, but also with being the greatest food retailer in every community in which they are located. Therefore, Whole Foods Market must purposefully plan and assess the marketing of its goods according to the demand of the customers (Whole Foods Market, n. d). For the last thirteen years, team members at Whole Foods Market, named their company as one of Fortune magazine’s â€Å"100 Best Companies to work for. † In 2010, they were ranked number eighteen. Whole Foods is acknowledged for its team-based operations and employee-oriented work culture, which are considered to be the foundations of its development and success within the industry (Whole Foods Market, n. d. ). Whole Foods Market takes pride in setting themselves apart from their competitors within the industry. No matter how much the company excels in size or makes changes to the organization, the organization supports change by establishing and maintaining seven core values. According to Whole Foods Market (n. ), the core values are â€Å"selling the highest quality of natural and organic products available, satisfying and delighting customers, supporting team member happiness and excellence, creating wealth through profit and growth, caring about the community and environment, creating an ongoing win-win partnership with suppliers, and promoting the health of stakeholders through healthy eating education. † Included in these core values are open communication and transparency, education and training, and staff empowerment. No matter how large a company Whole Foods Market becomes, they preserve what makes them unique through these core values. Whole Foods Market: Challenges and Opportunities As with many organizations, the past economic down turn has caused many organizations to face a lot of challenges and to make difficult business decisions. Whole Foods Market created a permanent modification in how they operate many vital areas of the business. This year, 2010, the company’s business model includes continued focus on vital areas of the company by focusing in on purchasing with regards to the business while creating more worth for the consumer regarding pricing (Whole Foods Market, n. d). In the letter to the stakeholders (2009), Mackey, CEO desires to stay focused on dropping operating cost without harming the customer experience. Additionally, he states that as an organization they are committed to being better custodians of capital and producing free cash flow on a yearly basis. In the future, Mackey foresees new smaller stores that are less expensive, and an increase return on invested capital. A recent 2009 SWOT Analysis of the organization from Datamonitor (2009) listed some additional opportunities such as the recent strategic acquisitions that helped in strengthening their market position. These acquisitions also help the organization to expand its operations in the natural and organic foods markets as well as increase its client base and the number of product categories. One acquisition in particular is the merge with Wild Oats Market in 2007. Other opportunities recorded by Datamonitor (2009) include the growing demand for private label products. Recent economic conditions have warranted companies to offer less expensive private label products as an alternative to the customers’ needs. Whole Foods Market: Human Resource Management Strategies What makes Whole Foods stand out from others in the industry is not a single management process but a distinctive managing structure which includes Human Resource Management support. According to Rose and Kumar (2006) it is important that organizations utilize HRM practices that make best use of its employees, and that is just what Whole Foods Market has done. For example, at Whole Foods, the basic organizational unit isn’t the store but small teams that manage departments such as fresh produce, prepared foods, and seafood. Teams are consulted on all store-level decisions and they have been given a degree of independence that is very unique in the industry (Whole Foods Market, n. d). According to Hamel (2006), each team makes decisions concerning stock, and new hires. Bonuses are paid to the teams, not to individuals. Members have access to comprehensive fiscal information, including the details of every coworker’s wage. Whole Foods Market has been very successful with their ability to recruit and retain good employees. The recruiting process is exceptionally unique. According to Whole Foods Market (n. d), applicants are generally screened by store management or by a human resources person through a preliminary interview. Once the individual is screened for overall job skills and qualifications, the application is referred to the appropriate department managers for a final interview. The final interview process may be conducted by a team or panel depending on the position. Team member’s partaking in group interviews is one way the company puts its culture of empowerment into action. Hamel and Breen (2007), state that this recruiting process is used for all new employees; including those hoping to join teams at Whole Foods’ center of operations, such as the national IT or finance groups. Additional HRM practices include the organizations focus on compensation and incentive based rewards. According to Erickson and Gratton (2007), this is one of the main components of their rewards system within the organization. Each team’s compensation is directly linked to how well that team functions. Team performance is considered in terms of overall productivity; profit-sharing based on those numbers are added directly to each team member’s compensation. Teams are responsible for a different product category or aspect of store operations such as customer service, prepared foods, or grocery, among others. Whole Foods believes in a company-wide awareness of sharing the fate of the business by combining the wellbeing of team members as directly as possible with the interests of the shareholders. The organization uses a gain sharing program to reinforce concept. This program rewards things that members of the team can control such as work efficiency which gives members a direct stake in the victories of the company (Whole Foods Market, n. d). Whole Foods also encourages stock ownership options in plans such as the Team Member Stock Option Plan. Within this plan, all members are entitled to receive a grant of stock options each year. According to the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (2007), the grant has two components: the Annual Leadership Grants identify and motivate team member performance; and the Service Hour Grants identify team member service within the Company. Another plan is the Team Member Stock Purchase Plan. Through payroll deductions, all non-seasonal team members with at least 400 service hours may choose to buy unlimited shares of stock at 95% of market worth on the purchase date. Whole Foods Human Resource practices are effective because the culture allows for an atmosphere of transparency, with open books and open people. These processes include the organizations team process which allows for autonomy and a high level of responsibility of line staff. Through such a practice, members use their decision-making authority to take part in driving the business forward. Additionally, the team process promotes healthy competition, trust between members. Whole Foods Market: Recommended Strategies for Improvement Although Whole Foods HRM practices seem successful, there is room for improvement. The following strategies are recommended in the area of team implementation and practices: * If the organization maintains the team concept it is important that management ensures that members do not to obstruct the team authority over the individual. Members should merely feel responsible to each other, but still free to be themselves. Members should also be recognized as individuals. Individuals have a need to be recognized for hard work and individual achievement. Providing a reward system for individual milestones and achievements might also allow for successful company performance. * The organization should provide opportunities for personal growth and promotion through training and education. * The organization should ensure that there are no cliques within the teams. Cliques could make it difficult to maintain cohesion and cooperation within the team. Management should also ensure or encourage subtle unsanctioned norms that steer the actions of team members, saying what’s suitable and what’s not suitable behavior especially within the recruitment process in which members choose their team members. * The organization should periodically evaluate the alignment of team compensation and incentives for the work that is likely to be performed. * HR should monitor changes in team compensation systems to ensure the organization’s compensation is clearly understood by staff and that any changes, including team incentive pay, is also communicated. HR should ensure that employees within the team are able to see and understand the goals of the team, and gain an understanding of his or her importance as a member. These improvement strategies can only make Whole Foods Market more successful than they are already. These improvements will drive the business success, by assisting in promoting productivity, by increasing job satisfaction and retention, and by increasing profits within the organization. Whole Foods Market: Plan Evaluation and Measurements Before implementation of new strategies, employees will be informed of the proposed implementation and changes. Managers will ensure that staffs understand what is being implemented and the impact to employees if any. The success of this plan will be evaluated by reviewing the success of the implemented strategies periodically to ensure continuous improvement. The evaluation of the strategies will include internal assessments and/or employee surveys/questionnaires. The internal assessments and/or employee surveys/questionnaires will be aimed to ascertain the employees’ satisfaction of those methods and strategies. Results of the evaluation and measurements will be compiled and reviewed by the organizations HR team. The team will seek to: (1) determine if implemented strategies are predictive of organizations mission and business plan, (2) understand how implemented strategies improved or did not improve current HR practices and finally, (3) determine if there is a relationship between the implemented strategies and overall retention and job satisfaction. If the results are satisfactory, strategies will continue to be implemented monitored and reviewed. Results that are unsatisfactory will be discussed with employees to determine why the implemented strategy was not a success and to determine necessary changes if applicable. Whole Foods Market: Conclusion In conclusion both management and HR play an important role in the strategy and betterment of Whole Foods Market. This organization has already established a culture that reduces fear and increases trust. The company prides itself in the transparency between management level staff and line staff. Implementation of these strategies will only assist to increase employee satisfaction and retention.

Toni Morrison

Hannah Campos Professor Gibbons English 2 February 25, 2013 The Future of Language is in Our Hands Toni Morrison’s is a leading figure in American literature who won the Nobel Prize in 1993. She is good at giving different points of views or metaphors in order to show her purpose of writing and produce the tension of beauty. Black history plays a huge role in Morrison’s writing. In her lecture she tells a story happening between a blind woman and a few young men. The young men question her wisdom by asking if the bird in their hand was alive or dead.Her response to that was, â€Å"it is in your hands† meaning that the fate of the bird is in your hands. They could either let the bird live or die. The bird in this story indicates language. Morrison tries to imply that language is diminishing slowly as generation goes on and on. She believes that it is in our hands to revive it for what it truly is. The story involves the racial issues. Morrison shows her strong lov e for Hero language, but at the same time she showed her worry for its situation in the hands of todays society. Morrison feels like language can or will be killed by indifference and be employed to promote violence.In the continuing essay I will talk about Toni Morrison’s style and reason of writing what she writes and also what she means about â€Å"it is in your hands†, language that is. Morrison’s Nobel Lecture best interprets her artistic writing style. The fully poetic language and creative writing is what makes Morrison so outstandingly bold and Campos 2 different. Morrison is good at realizing what the purpose is and prevailing it onto others in a way that is easily persuasive and believable. She has many narrative techniques that she takes in to action.In this lecture she gave, she brings forth all these techniques I just said in the above text. Toni Morrison makes a good point when, in her acceptance speech upon receiving the Nobel Prize in Literature, she says, â€Å"Narrative . . . is . . . one of the principal ways in which we absorb knowledge† (7). The words we use and the way in which we use them is how we, as humans, communicate to each other our thoughts, feelings, and actions and therefore our knowledge of the world and its peoples. Knowledge is power. In this way, our language, too, is powerful. We as the people just need to learn how to use it properly.In her acceptance speech, Morrison tries to communicate the idea that we must be careful with how we use our words. Once again, She analogizes the use of language to the life of a metaphoric bird in a tale of a wise, old, blind woman. Toni Morrison opens her speech by referring to a tale of two young people who, in trying to disprove the credibility of this wise woman, ask the question, â€Å" is the bird I am holding in my hand living or dead? ’†. Of course, being blind, the woman does not know and must say so. However, she adds that, â€Å" What I do know is that it is in your hands. It is in your hands†.In saying this, she tells the youngsters that the fate of the bird’s life is their responsibility. The bird, in this case, represents language. Morrison tries to portray the blind woman as an experienced writer of some sort. Some believe that it is herself. She goes on to say that the bird has either been found dead, been killed, or has the ability (if it Campos 3 is alive) to be killed, much as language, being looked at as a living thing, can live or die; be saved or destroyed. As Morrison would say language is â€Å"susceptible to death, erasure; certainly imperiled and salvageable only by an effort of the will†.That will is the responsibility of those who use it. We have the option to make language something beautiful, useful, and a source of that power of knowledge, or as degrading, offensive, and oppressive. Throughout her speech, Toni Morrison works towards defining and supporting this thesis of resp onsibility. It is our responsibility, as users of words, to make language thrive. We are not aware of the words that come out of our mouths due to lack of thought or attention, we all suffer and we are all at fault. The standards of society are changing and with them the standards and values to which we hold the meaning of our words.Some may say that the values and morals are declining and with that comes a decline in the way in which we as a society express ourselves. Should we be so â€Å"careless† or â€Å"indifferent† with our language, its â€Å"demise† will surely come. Words may, in fact, loose their affect and meaning. Perhaps this gives new meaning to the statement â€Å"language may be the measure of our lives†. Language has many uses, and with it responsibilities, namely â€Å"grappling with meaning, providing guidance, and expressing love†. Where would we be if we, as a culture, abandoned this all? Would we have no meaning, no guidance, no love?All people who use language are capable of this, if not already to blame for this: children, parents, those who hold positions of power. All in all, Morrison tries to use a metaphoric analogy in order to portray her views on the role that language plays today and in the future. She strives to keep in abundant Campos 4 and living in all of our vocabulary. Morrison is very dedicated to her writing. She uses her ethnicity to help her tell her stories using racial issues. In the end, I believe that we all have language in our hands, how we use it is all up to us. It is our responsibility, however, to help future generations use it right.

Conflict Resolution Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Conflict Resolution - Term Paper Example Two or more parties are involved in a conflict. This world runs on dualities—pair of opposites as it is known from the philosophical point of view. In the parlance of modern management techniques, issues can be resolved by negotiations, across the table. The destructive element, the negative thinking that gives rise to conflicts can be dealt with constructively. The day to day life is full of conflicts. Some of the striking conflicts that have the bearing on the social and economic aspect of the life of individuals are trade union issues, protest of farmers against the forced acquisition of their agricultural lands for construction of shopping centers, nations engaged in disputes related to boundaries etc. The enlightened ones rely on an appropriate mechanism to deal with such conflicts constructively with an open mind, without further aggravating the contentious points involved in the conflict. The popular saying goes, ‘Where there is a will, there is a say.’ A d ynamic approach to solve the conflict averts destructive situations The purpose of this paper is to understand the root cause of the conflicts and how conflict resolution is possible with a constructive approach and arrive at creative solutions, without leaving the trace of bitterness. This paper outlines theoretical and practical approaches of conflict resolution. The specific objective of this paper is to give comment on one current example in the field of conflict management, to draw some practical conceptual conclusions relating to this conflict with particular reference to capacity building initiatives, integration of responses to contemporary conflict, the links between civil society building and conflict management, importance of non-official agencies in conflict resolution, post-conflict reconstruction, sharing of concern by parties that are not directly related to the conflict, and democratization of conflict

Bend it like a Man of Chosun Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Bend it like a Man of Chosun - Essay Example The main perspective on which the author argued that the racial and ethnic inferiority complexes of the Korean people from the western world can be overcome or healed with their participation in in sports like football in which they feel at the top of the world which came with the victory of Korea in Berlin Olympics, 1936. In support of his statement he stated that in the year 2002 World Cup, when Korea reached the Semifinals, their victory in the game again brought to unify the nation again and provided a great opportunity to cure the ethnic inferiority of its people. The author provided the evidence of the newspaper Dong-A Ilbo, which published the photograph of Sohn with Japanese Flag and removed his Uniform of the Korean country. He proved the strength of the mass media that is newspaper in Korea in developing the sense of Nationalism. Although the victory of Sohn ended the very first stage of sport nation in Korea, its people very clearly understood the importance of sports competition in international level which brought them pride for their country. The author has a strong positive viewpoint about how a sport can initiate nationalistic behavior in a country and it is very true till now a days. During the time of sport activities the people try to view the country as one and try to figure the all the positive aspects about the country while almost forgot the other factors. Author mentioned different evidence to prove his point in the document which makes it very rich in establishing the facts. The main problem we can notice in the document that the author only emphasized on only a single factor that is sport. Sport can only initiate the nationalism in its people but it is up to the people who will continue to it or not. As in the document we can find that after 1936 there is no mention of any other incidence till 2002. A single thing can never eradicate the inferiority sense from the minds of the people and it can it will be temporary. Yes I am

Terrorism is a form of risk that is impossible to manage. - Discuss Essay

Terrorism is a form of risk that is impossible to manage. - Discuss - Essay Example fact, the above views present the reality as it has been experienced by many people around the world after a series of relevant attacks that have been occurred in U.S., in Spain, in Britain and in almost all countries of the Middle East region. From another point of view, Kunreuther (2006, 38) has supported that ‘natural disasters and terrorist attacks are examples of what have been classified as low probability-high consequence (LP-HC) events; despite the first half of their title, these events are now in the headlines with increasing frequency’. It should be noticed however that although the above events are considered as quite possible to be repeated frequently, there is no sufficient provision for their prevention. Moreover, it has been stated that ‘there are features of these potentially catastrophic events that need to be carefully examined in order for individuals, firms, and governments to take steps today to reduce the risk of their occurrence in the future and to reduce the consequences should they occur; every government in the world faces the question of how to help its citizens face the risks of catastrophe but reducing these risks requires a concerted effort by individuals and firms’ (Kunreuther, 2006, 38). This weakness of the state to respond effectively to the needs of individuals and institutions that have suffered significant losses from terrorist attacks has led to the need for the creation of specific programs offered by insurance companies that focus on the provision of compensation to the victims of terrorist attacks (either individuals or organizations). Under these terms it has been found that ‘the institutions, programs, and policies that provide benefits to businesses and individuals affected by an accident, natural disaster, terrorist attack, or other type of loss can be thought of as a system composed of four primary compensation mechanisms: insurance, the tort system, government programs, and charity; together these

Postmodernism Art and Cognitive Mapping Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Postmodernism Art and Cognitive Mapping - Essay Example In its particular form, postmodernism was used in identifying pluralistic style in various arts, such as painting, music, philosophy, literature and even films. It directly contradicts and revolting against the "pretensions of high modernism" art (Honderich 1995). Usually, the form is taken as a basis for critical theory of certain work primarily architectural, then later on in literature and designs. It was historically regarded that this was formed by architectural movement to emphasis their dissatisfaction to modernism form (Britannica 2004). Its flexibility proven as it stretched its horizon and encompasses as well cultural description, constitutional interpretation, business and marketing. They are described as a revival of the traditional elements in designing, and techniques (Merriam-Webster 2004). In its easiest description, postmodern art abandons the political advocacy for particular principle that modern art had been known of. Francis Berry, in his work Art of the Eye and Mind (2007), described this form and its occurrence as "the political ideals that fueled modernism had given way to profound disillusionment with abhorrent wars such as Vietnam, ultra-utilitarian architecture, and academic minimalism". Along with this, Barry explained that postmodernism "undermines the manipulative aspect of ideologies by exposing the artificiality of style" (Barry 2007). However, this study deals on the postmodernism significance to assess certain literary works, as well as its certain role and effectiveness in delivering considerable points of the works. Frederic Jameson's Theory. Although Jean-Francois Lyotard, Jean Baudillard, and Jacques Derrida were the primary thinkers of the Postmodernism, it was Frederic Jameson who came up with lucid principle of the movement. In Jameson's work "Postmodernism, or The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism", it was then analyzed that his theory is formulated with an integration of Marxist theory, known as the basis of the modernism politics. According to Jonathan Clark, Jameson had "proposed the epoch of post modernity with its own economic, political and cultural ideals, and practices" (2007), thus it made him the "most important cultural critic writing in English today". For further discernment of the subject, it is essential to analyze the understanding in Jameson's theory, of its background and initial drive of his project (Clark 2007). Like many of the prior structured movement, postmodernism is being criticized by its contemporary movements. In Jameson's work, it stated in there that cognitive mapping is the only hope for the postmodern art, as the form now has been debatable of its principles for certain political analysis. Cognitive Mapping. Perhaps Frederic Jameson's remarkable theory regarding postmodernism is the cognitive mapping. Craig Stroupe of University of Minnesota (2008) defined Jameson's cognitive mapping as "a process by which the individual subject situates himself within a vaster, unrepresentable totality, a process that corresponds to the workings of ideology". Stroupe continued his description of cognitive mapping. This time he picked up Jameson's comparative approach of the ideology to the physical geography of a person as the concrete process of cognitive mapping. He stated: "In a classic work, The Image of the City, Kevin Lynch taught us

Intro and conclusion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Intro and conclusion - Essay Example Greece is one of the prominent countries in the European Union. However, unlike many other countries in EU, Greece is currently struggling a lot because of financial problems. EU is doing everything possible to revitalize Greece’s economy. However, the depth of the financial problems facing by Greece seems to be big. However, Greece still offers enough opportunities to foreign direct investments. Greece realized that internal resources are limited to streamline the economic progress in the right path. Currently they are trying hard to attract Foreign Direct Investment as much as possible to escape from the financial problems. New products and existing products have equal opportunities in Greece at present. Because of the blind faith in the abilities of Americans, American products are accepted with both hands by Greeks. Product manufacturers in America can capitalize on such attitudes of Greek people. We have planned to develop a new multipurpose product; alarm clock/ smart phone charger / coffee maker and market it in Greece. This paper is written as a marketing plan for the newly developed alarm clock in Greece. The current population in Greece right now is 10,767,827 (â€Å"Greece Demographics Profile 2013.†). There are currently 4,704,248 people that makes up our products target market, which is roughly 44% of the total current market (â€Å"Greece Demographics Profile 2013.†). Over the past three years, Greece’s economy has been on the decline and with the recently raised income taxes, there has been a decline in disposable income as well (â€Å"Cafes/Bars in Greece.†). For the average adult, the normal work week consists of 40 hours, but during this time, Greeks do not take normal lunch breaks (â€Å"Cafes/Bars in Greece.†). Instead they take multiple shirt breaks throughout the day in which they get coffee or a quick snack (â€Å"Cafes/Bars in Greece.†). Coffee has become apart of Greek culture where its is a daily routine. Greeks

William Shakespeare's Twelfth Night Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

William Shakespeare's Twelfth Night - Essay Example The role of Viola is a servant that perfectly demonstrates the willing service she will offer in her role being a wife. From Viola's position as wife of Orsino presumes an erotic demand that includes Viola's unselfish love and the contentment of gender-blurring making it noticeable the erotic possibility within the unequal power relationship inherent in condition of service itself. Whereas lots of critics have outlined fictitious plots of women concealed as boys to serve their male beloveds, the absolute range and power of these erotic relationships implies that Twelfth Night depicts an existing matter of social relations in the early contemporary family. The Malvolio plot is an intricate apparatus for the managing of affairs between upper servants and their employers. The Twelfth Night may have been making the most out of the scandal of an underground social practice. This is for because of the apparent signification of passionate meanings through certain kinds and colors of clothing and the circulation of indistinct verse with equally indistinct handwriting. Inside Olivia's household is the characterization of conspiracies and sexual liaisons. The Twelfth Night play tolerates a lot of lavishly erotic interactions that remains noticeably insensitive to Malvolio's desire. Malvolio is much more ridiculous for wanting to marry Olivia than is Olivia for wanting to marry Caesario. Moreover, Twelfth Night draws a line that connects acceptably arousing erotics of service and a social taboo. Malvolio's desire for power created a threat on both social and symbolic register. The character that Malvolio plays performs an ambitious individualism that will eventually be successful in clearing out an ideology of service at the heart of other employer-servant relationships in the early modern culture in his humorless desire for power over others along with his self-interest that lurk behind an submissive faade. Erotics of service have traversed the boundaries of social standards at a certain degree. Cultural anxieties do not essentially show a direct relationship with the degree of threat involved. Albeit a considerable number of women are essentially engaged in sexual acts with their male servants, the opportunity for erotic intrigues in households became part of a cultural fantasy. With their differences in position, Olivia and Malvolio's sexual connection is considered impossible within the society. From the confusing transition from feudal to capitalist economies, from the related decline in the status of servants, and from the fluidity of their status within individual households, all of these shaped the erotics of service in the early modern household. Furthermore, the Twelfth Night portrays a potent strategy of gaining dominance in a household and a depiction of the early modern culture's deepest fears as the ideology of service, so important to a neo-feudal hierarchy based on rank and class, showed signs of tension. As a servant, Malvolio pulled off a particular degree of glory and good affluence through his great effort of serving as a steward of great noble household accounting to his trustworthiness especially to his mistress. Despite the fact that his deeds designates a severe punishment, Malvolio's effort was really improper

Informative Synthesis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Informative Synthesis - Essay Example However, the anticipated environmental concerns and possible health and life threatening effects are consistently increasing the international organizations’ condemnation on the eminent nuclear energy in Iran. Indeed, the nuclear reactors tragedy in Fukushima Japan brought severe and lifetime effects that proved to be dangerous and inevitable (Greenpeace 1). However, the significance of this critical subject hails from the fact that the host nation is a minority nation with more economical interests than human or global security concerns. Iran is indeed not in any way ready to compromise its quest in this project. Actually, the urge to make their dream for a nuclear source of energy has only grown more real. Additionally, Iran has been concealing a ploy to develop uranium enrichment in its territories. Indeed, Iran produced 215 billion kWh gross in 2008 generating a per capita consumption of about 2000 kWh/yr. Out of these production, 80% of its electricity was from gas and 16 .5% from oil. In fact, the nuclear energy reactor started up in Iran on 8 May 2011 through September 2011 after many years of construction and many consistent efforts against ever increasing international opposition. With 75 % production capacity realized in March, the prospects of the project oversee the project entering commercial operation about April 2012 (World Nuclear Association 1). Subject to these developments, the international organizations like the UN Security council and international governments like the US institute sanctions, trade barriers, and diplomatic withdrawals against Iran with a hope of convincing or even coercing Iran to compromise on its pursuit for Nuclear energy (UN Security council 1-12). However, despite the stringent terms, Iran has not shown any signs of giving in to international pressure where they prioritize their economic interests on nuclear energy before international interests. This puts to question the mode of decision-making that Iranian lea dership adopts on matters of global concern like the nuclear energy. The significance of international pressure on nuclear energy in Iran is a relevant issue on the University of Alabama student. I addressing this topic, I will focus on opinion articles, "Only Crippling Sanctions Will Stop Iran" of March 2, 2012 by Emanuele Ottolenghi and "Starving Iran Won't Free It† March 2, 2012  by Hooman Majd. The article, "Only Crippling Sanctions Will Stop Iran" of March 2, 2012 by Emanuele Ottolenghi is however more effective in that it draws the history of important Iranian decisions, how Iranians value sanctions, what drives the Iranians to change and the respect accorded to the Iranian government by the Iranians. This will help in analyzing the effect of the international sanctions against nuclear energy in Iran. Emanuele holds the opinion that the western allies assume that Iran’s leaders are rational actors, and rely on cost-benefit analyses to reach important decision (O ttolenghi 1). Hence, they assume that their continued gradual increase in the costs of Iran’s nuclear pursuit will lead to Tehran concession in the current nuclear standoff between the western decision makers and the Iranian decision makers. They expect the Iranian decision makers to behave rationally agree to a compromise and ignore Iran’s perspective on costs already incurred, the price of completing the journey and the advantages of turning back subject to the continued international pressure (Ottolenghi 1). The Iranian decision makers do not necessarily behave as assumed by the Western decision makers. History shows that the Iran’s decision makers are impervious to cost-benefit analysis and have never been isolationists. Hooman recognizes the fact that coercion, sanctions or exiles and their enablers

Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad Essay Example for Free

Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad Essay The short passage written by Joseph Conrad expressed through narration his impression of Africa. The narrator in the story was Marlow. In one part of the story, Marlow recounts his experiences as he was journeying up the Congo River. The images used in the story depict a downbeat mood. The Congo River reminded him of the prehistoric times when nature thrived the earth. It was situated in close proximity to deep and eerie forests, where dangerous creatures lurked. The forests were unwelcoming and the waters flowed in no particular direction. Marlow though the place to be disconnected from the real world saying, â€Å"†¦you thought yourself bewitched and cut off forever from everything you had known once. † These images imply differences between the worldview of European and African culture, because of how they see Africa. The African people see the forests as their home and their land. It is their most priceless possession from where their culture is deep-rooted. It is their way of life. The European views African lands as undeveloped. There is a need for civilization, and there is a need to eliminate the â€Å"barbaric† way of life. Conrad sees no ecstasy in the wealth of the African people. There is no pleasure, he says, in the unscathed forests and streams. There is nothing precious about it. However, the African people see their ancestral land as a jewel where they can be free observing their culture and their preferred way of life. It is not uninvolved with the world, but it is one with the earth because its people enjoy its native and inborn fruitfulness as it is. The African people obtain their food from hunting in the forest, and they hide in the forest to protect themselves from the enemy. The stream is their source of life. Metaphorically speaking, the images illustrated in the passage also criticize the culture of the African people as dark and untamed. Marlow reminisced, â€Å"†¦it came in the shape of an unrestful and noisy dream, remembered with wonder amongst the overwhelming realities of this strange world of plants, and water, and silence. † However, in the eyes of the African people, their culture identifies who they are as individuals and who they are as a group of people. The two images aforementioned clearly define a line that divides the worldviews of the European people and the African people.

Analysing The Importance Of Female Political Participation Politics Essay

Analysing The Importance Of Female Political Participation Politics Essay Though women have made great strides in the last fifty years, it has been easier to gain rights, or descriptive representation, than to fully implement them. Countries where women are well represented seem to have more pro-women policies, for example, the governments of Sweden, Norway, Finland and Denmark, have the highest levels of womens representation in Europe, and have shown the effects of that expanded representation through policies that address some of the conflict in female roles between work and child rearing (Stockemer 2007 p477). Ideally, the representation of women in legislatures would reflect their numbers in the population, however, even partial representation can generate gains in government response to the needs of women (Schwindt-Bayer and Mishler, 2005 p424). Greater representation for women, even when it is far lower than the population ratio can provide an ideal focus group for testing how democratically consolidated a country is (Schwindt-Bayer and Mishler, 2005 p408). All minority groups have identifiable interests and may be underrepresented, but it is much more difficult to compare them systematically because these groups are so varied; a group that is a minority in one country can be a majority in another and absent altogether in a third. Women, however, constitute approximately 50% of the population and live virtually everywhere (Schwindt-Bayer and Mishler, 2005 p408). If the interests of half the population are underrepresented in the legislature, the policies of the state are less likely to represent the interests of women, and result in less legislation that meets their needs. More broadly, the state is less democratically consolidated. Political Parties and Groups The importance of political parties in the democratic sphere seems to revolve around the idea of institutionalized competition, an alternate government in waiting. Conflict between the governing and opposition parties helps democratic consolidation by establishing democratic norms and rules, so a strong presence in political parties may be one route towards substantive representation for women. Institutionalized party competition helps permit the largest possible part of the population to influence major decisions. Conversely, political parties must have an almost permanent base of support among a significant segment of the population if they are to survive, which means that political parties should be motivated to include such a large portion of the population as women. In order to gain greater representation, women must be selected as candidates, and be elected. In most countries, political parties are the primary means by which individuals are selected and supported in their bids for the public office (Lipset 2000). The ratio of effective parties to all operating parties may influence how many women participate in politics. The higher the ratio, the more likely all parties will be elected to a meaningful number of seats. Parties that typically win a meaningful share of seats may be unwilling to go against the status quo and do things differently than in the past. A high ratio of effective parties indicates a system with mostly comfortable, possibly complacent, parties. In such a situation, the promotion of women as candidates and their support in elections may not be a high priority. In contrast, if the ratio of effective parties to all operating parties is low, it indicates an increased presence of marginal parties that may be more likely to take risks on fielding and supporting women as candidates (Kunovich and Paxton 2005). The presence of women in elite party positions would also seem to increase the overall number of women fielded as candidates. High percentages of women in party elites may indicate a greater supply of qualified (or perceived to be qualified) women for the parties of a country, membership in such positions may be seen as a stepping stone towards candidacy, and female party elites may use their influence directly to facilitate a greater number of female candidates. (Kunovich and Paxton 2005). Political groups outside of electoral institutions may be just as effective at pushing for greater representation of women as parties. The Brazilian National Council on Womens Rights between 1986 and 1989 acted as an effective de facto womens lobby and coordinator for the womens movement, holding conferences, seminars and public forums all over Brazil where proposals for constitutional amendments were being formulated that culminated in a Carta to the Women in Constituent Assembly. The Carta included a range of proposals, such as changes in labor legislation, family law, day-care and other improvements in womens rights such as the explicit recognition of equality between men and women. Eighty percent of the demands made in this movement, ranging from the recognition of womens sexual and reproductive rights to 120 days paid maternity leave, were accepted (Waylen 2006). Ideology or Political Culture Do ideological compositions of national legislatures influence womens effective representation in those legislatures? Political culture could be described as the embodiment of the attitudes and values of a society, which define the roles an individual may play in the political process. Cultural and traditional values promoting gender inequality seem to remain a major obstacle to the election of women in more traditional societies because female participation in legislative politics is likely to be discouraged by elite opinion leaders and the public, both of whom want to maintain a male-oriented status quo. However, in more progressive, westernized cultures secular trends towards post-materialist values seem to challenge traditional sex roles and facilitate the entry of more women into power. On the level of political parties, Leftist parties espouse more egalitarian beliefs than right-wing parties and are known for their greater support for gender equality. Parties to the left might also feel the need to be sensitive to groups traditionally excluded from the circles of power (Stockemer 2007). Women tend to vote more liberally than men, but this may be attributed to differences in party identification and regional representation (Hallett 2001). If ideology is a decisive factor, then the percentage of seats held by leftist parties in a country could be an indicator of feminine influence, and this proves to be a highly insignificant. 21 out of 27 states of the EU have left-wing parties with a higher number of female representatives than their right-wing counterparts, but the impact of these findings on the overall representation of women is very limited. Electorate System Proportional systems tend to make use of multi-member districts, which means more than one candidate can be elected from a particular district. In contrast, plurality/majority systems like the United States ask citizens to vote for single candidates, typically in single member districts. An electoral system that uses a proportional representation list system and multi-member districts offers several advantages to female candidates. Since parties operating under proportional representation list systems publish lists of candidates, they may feel pressure to balance their partys ticket across genders, leading to greater numbers of women. Balancing party tickets is used to attract voters but also to achieve equity across different factions of the party and to resolve internal party disputes through compromise (Stockemer 2007). A womens position in a political party seems to translate into gains for women as candidates only under proportional representation systems (Kunovich and Paxton 2005). Electoral systems with greater proportionality and higher district magnitudes also tend to elect larger percentages of women to legislatures (Schwindt-Bayer 2005). Investigations have consistently shown that womens representation is higher under proportional representation than under a plurality system (Stockemer 2007). Conclusion There seems to be general agreement that electoral institutions are an important factor affecting the level of womens representation. Formal representative structures and processes exert powerful influences on the extent of womens descriptive representation, policy responsiveness, and symbolic representation. One important thing to consider is to differentiate the levels of representativeness for measuring the success or failures towards greater female representation. Institutional representativeness does not automatically translate into greater substantive representation for women, though conversely is seems difficult to have greater substantive representation without institutional reforms. When considering the impact of different electorate systems on womens representation, the realms of political parties and electorate institutions seem to blend together for proportional representation systems, while pluralistic/majoritarian systems have fewer mechanisms to ensure greater female p articipation. Annotated Bibliography Bano, Saira. (2009). Women in Parliament in Pakistan: Problems and Potential Solutions. Womens Studies Journal 23, no. 1 (September): 19-35. In this article, the author focus on the role of Pakistani women in the political arena, an interesting test case considering widespread belief that Islam is hostile to greater feminist rights. The article also provides good hindsight about the state of womens representation around the globe, what works and what doesnt. Hallett, Stephanie L. (2001). Truth and Fiction: A Study of the Gender Gap in the US National Legislature. Politics 21, no. 3 (September). In this short and simple article, the author attempts to link political ideology with gender, and finds that indeed women are more likely to vote liberal, but that it likely can be attributed to other factors such as party affiliation or regionalism. This article is useful for considering variables besides electoral systems that effect womens representation. Kunovich, Sheri, and Pamela Paxton. (2005). Pathways to Power: The Role of Political Parties in Womens National Political Representation. American Journal of Sociology 111, no. 2 (September): 505-552. The authors were interested in theories about how to examine political factors affecting womens political representation over time and investigates how electoral systems, national-level gender quotas and growth of political rights and civil liberties impact womens legislative representation. Found that national quotas do affect womens political presence, but at a lower level than legislated by law; second, the impact of a proportional representation system on womens political representation is steady over time; and third, civil liberties, do not affect the level of womens political representation in the earliest period of democracy formation, but do influence the growth of womens political representation over time. Lipset, Seymour Martin. (2000). The Indispensability of Political Parties. Journal of Democracy 11, no.1 (January): 48. This article helped me consider political parties by themselves as factors affecting womens representation. The article also helped provide a working definition of democracy and the factors that determine the makeup and strength of political parties in the framework of democratic government, Important for considering electorate systems and womens representation in the larger framework of society. Schedler, Andreas. (1998). What is Democratic Consolidation? Journal of Democracy 9, no. 2 (April): 91. The article helped provide an expanded definition of democratic consolidation to include familiar democratic values and helps shape the argument that greater representation of women means greater democratic consolidation. The article is also useful for pointing out how flexible and relative our definitions of words like democracy are in the grand scheme of things. Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie A., and William Mishler. (2005). An Integrated Model of Womens Representation. Journal of Politics 67, no. 2 (May): 407-428. This article examines the many dimensions of what it means to be represented. The authors point out the difference between symbolic, institutional, and substantive representation. The article relies on evidence that refutes any directional correlations between the different states of representation. Stockemer, Daniel. (2007). Why are there Differences in the Political Representation of Women in the 27 Countries of the European Union? Perspectives on European Politics Society 8, no. 4 (December 15): 476-493. An interesting analysis of what influences womens representation in the EU. Some of the factors considered include electoral system, quotas, economic affluence, and political culture. This study may be more relevant than others because it considered only EU countries, which helps cut down on extraneous variables. This article also helped provide perspective about what is means to be represented and the state of womens representation today. Waylen, Georgina. (2006). Constitutional Engineering: What Opportunities for the Enhancement of Gender Rights? Third World Quarterly 27, no. 7 (October): 1209-1221. This article examines the function of a constitution in regards to expanding womens representation. It finds that constitutions, and other mechanisms like gender quotas, definitely help expand the representation of women, but by no means ensure it. This article also points out that framing the usefulness of these mechanisms are important today because of efforts to build democracy after war in places like Afghanistan and Iraq.

Cultural Displacement :: Personal Narrative Traveling Essays

Cultural Displacement I sidestepped the bald man next to me who was ordering what looked like duck feet, in rapid Malaysian. Looking down at my green plastic tray, like those often found in high school lunch rooms, I saw the square banana leaf piled high with plain white rice looking back. The thought of â€Å"foods† like fish eyes, stuffed animal intestine, or any kind of pickled hoof on my rice made my gag reflexes kick into high gear. I paid for my abysmal lunch, a measly dollar fifty US, smiled at the man at the register, and walked to a nearby table. It had been three days and I had eaten little more than white rice and clear broth for most of that time. I knew later I’d be doubled over, in agonizing pain over my empty stomach but I still couldn’t bring myself to eat the meals in the food court. â€Å"Not feeling adventurous today?† My dad’s girlfriend plopped down in the seat next to me and began munching with gusto. She had been brave at this meal; her plate was covered in some brown thing, it might have been a vegetable and I sincerely hoped it was, though chose not to ask. Instead I smiled weakly and began to eat my rice with a severely bent metal fork. Metal forks in an Asian country? You’re probably wondering where all the chopsticks went. In fact, I was probably one of the few people in the vicinity who actually could use a chopstick. There’s a good reason behind this madness and it all starts with the British. Until about forty years ago, Singapore was colonized by the British. It seems strange but then again the British would have colonized a tea bag, given the chance. England also had colonized Hong Kong but was afraid of losing this major business and financial center to communism, a legitimate fear because that’s eventually what happened. Fortunately they had already created a clone Hong Kong on a tiny island off the tip of Malaysia. That island was called Singapore. In an effort to keep the business integrity that had been in Hong Kong, Chinese business men were brought in. The British eventually began to relinquish many of their colonies and when they finally left Singapore in the mid 1960s, the Chinese business men, who were the superpower that made Singapore the world trading center it was, took control of power.

The Makings of a Good Lawman :: Television Media TV Essays

The Makings of a Good Lawman Gunsmoke is about the violence that moved throughout the west and the united states marshal Matt Dillon along with his sidekick Chester, who moved along solving the crimes and lending a hand to anyone who needed it along the way. The staring cast of Gunsmoke was William Conrad as Matt Dillon, Howard McNear as Doc, Parley Baer as Chester, Georgia Ellis as Kitty. Usually the west is describes as a time in history filled with outlaws, gun fights, ghost towns, wagon journeys along trails, it was a time when people picked up and moved hearing of the next booming city where more gold can be found, more money to be made or the way of life was better than before. In Gunsmoke Matt Dillon is an independent, compassionate, caring, attentive, and determined person. In The Sutler, Matt Dillon it upon himself as he listens to a friend Mr. Jonas speak about a problem he has had with a man named Dale. Matt Dillon goes to the army fort to speak with the Lieutenant in charge about Dale. He is brushed off but persists in making him understand. In Prairie Happy the people of Dodge are getting ready for the Pawnees to attack. Mr. Chooksberry starts a fire and kills two men. Marshal Dillon Speaks with him and still puts him to bed. Chooksberry went to trial due to his daughter speaking on his behalf Chooksberry was a Pawnee. In There was never a Horse Marshal Dillon was backed down in a saloon by Mr. Ken Creed he is purposefully letting everyone know that he made the Marshal back down. Matt Dillons sense of self-reliance is that In Sutler he took it upon himself to gather information and created roadblocks along the route to and from the fort in order to catch Dale. In Prairie Happy Marshal Dillon remained calm while the city of Dodge was moving around trying to protect themselves the Marshal was the only one that thought about it and said that only an Indian would know when they would attack and not leave it so that the City of Dodge knew that they were going to attack. Chooksberry never spoke again in English only in Pawnee and Marshal Dillon was still concerned enough to allow his daughter to go to trial with him ; In There was never a Horse Marshal Matt allows himself to look like a fool no matter what other say.

Writing an Essay :: Writing an Essay

Here, I will reveal the methods and tactics to writing an effective analytical essay or evaluative article. Even if you already know how to write a well-structured essay, you may wish to refresh your knowledge and reaffirm what you already know. There are three key parts to an essay: the introduction, body and conclusion. The Introduction Deal with the introduction first of all. The introduction has to have these elements: the question, the answer, the preview of the essay and some scope or parameters. What is the question? This is called your Knowledge Based Problem, or simply the question that you need to find an answer to. What is the answer to your Knowledge Based Problem or question? This is called your thesis. Sometimes called merely an answer, your thesis is the key answer that sums up your entire case in one simple strong sentence. What am I going to talk about in the essay? Here is where you advertise what you want to speak and write about in the course of your essay. What are the definitions and parameters of the terms in your essay? There are two important elements here. One: â€Å"definitions† meaning that you define the words such that you can write your essay. Two: â€Å"parameters† meaning the things that you are not going to talk about or the restrictions of your essay. The Body The body of the essay comes next and many people actually don't know how to do this properly. They actually write whatever they want and whatever comes to their mind. This is incorrect. Here's how you actually do write the essay body to make your writing good and clear. A topic sentence is a sentence that sums up your paragraph and makes a key argument or key idea. You need a topic sentence because this is what you promised to write about. Explain what you mean by the topic sentence and give more details and more information. Sometimes you need to define words - so just do it here in the body as well. Give an example or examples. Tell the reader what the example means or what the examples mean. Summarise your paragraph or argument after doing that. Answer the question using your topic sentence once again at the end. You do this systematic and methodical approach for each and every paragraph. The Conclusion There are only three things you do at the conclusion of your excellent essay and nothing more, if you want a structured and clear essay.

Criminology Class Notes

Criminology – Class Notes for Chapters 1 through 10, and 12 (Full Course Materials) Chapter 1 – Crime and Criminology What is Criminology? An academic discipline that uses scientific methods to study the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior. What Do Criminologists Do? Criminal Statistics/Crime Measurement involves calculating the amount and trends of criminal activity and focuses on creating valid and reliable measures of criminal behavior. This is done by an analysis of the activities of police and court agencies.Measuring criminal activity not reported to the police by victims. Identifying the victims of crime. Developing Theories of Crime Causation Criminological orientations: Psychological – crime as a function of personality, development, social learning, or cognition (understanding). Biological – antisocial behavior as a function of biochemical, genetic, and neurological factors. Sociological – criminal behavior as a product of social forces including neighborhood conditions, poverty, socialization, and group interaction. Criminologists may use innovative methods to test theory.For example, the use of magnetic resonance imaging to assess the brain function of male batterers. The true cause of crime is still problematic – given similar conditions, why do some people choose crime while others do not? Understanding and Describing Criminal Behavior – Research of Specific Criminal Types and Crime Patterns 50 years ago, researchers focused on perceived major crimes including rape, murder, and burglary. Today, some researchers focus on crimes including stalking, cyber crime, terrorism, and hate crimes. Example: Terrorism and the terrorist personality a.Mental illness is not a critical factor in explaining terrorist behavior, most terrorists are not â€Å"psychopaths. † b. There is no â€Å"terrorist personality. † c. Histories of childhood abuse/trauma and themes of perceived injus tice and humiliation are often prominent in terrorist biographies but do not help to explain terrorism. Penology: Punishment, Sanctions, and Corrections Penology is concerned with the correction and sentencing of known criminal offenders. While some criminologists may advocate rehabilitation, others may advocate capital punishment and mandatory sentences.Criminologists as a whole are concerned with evaluating the effectiveness and impact of crime control programs. Victimology Criminologists who study victimization have found that criminals are at greater risk for victimization than non-criminals. Additionally, victims may be engaging in high-risk behavior, such as crime, which increases their victimization. A History of Criminology The scientific study of crime and criminality is a relatively recent development. During the Middle Ages (1200-1600) people who violated social and religious norms were viewed as being witches or possessed by demons.Torture was used to extract confessions , and criminals received harsh penalties, including whipping, branding, maiming, and execution. In the mid 1700s, Italian professor Cesare Beccaria developed a theory that human behavior is driven by a choice between the amount of pleasure gained over the amount of pain or punishment experienced. He argued that in order to reduce or stop criminal behavior, the punishment should be swift, certain, and severe. This theory of â€Å"free will† became known as the classical theory.Classical criminology – the theoretical perspective suggesting that (1) people have free will to choose criminal or conventional behaviors; (2) people choose to commit crime for reasons of greed or personal need; and (3) crime can be controlled only by the fear of criminal sanctions. Positivist Criminological Theory – holds that most criminal behavior is the result of social, psychological, and even biological influences. Positivism is the branch of social science that uses the scientific m ethod of the natural sciences and suggests that human behavior is a product of social, biological, psychological, or economic factors.Biological Determinism Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) is considered the â€Å"father of criminology. † Lombroso's theory of anthropological criminology essentially stated that criminality was inherited, and that someone â€Å"born criminal† could be identified by physical defects, which confirmed a criminal as savage. Lombroso's strict biological determinism is no longer taken seriously. Biosocial theory – Criminologists have recently linked crime and biological traits, and have looked at the link between physical and social traits and their influence on behavior (which also take into account social and environmental conditions).Sociological Criminology – Variables such as age, race, gender, socioeconomic status and ethnicity have been shown to have been shown to have a significant relationship with certain categories and patt erns of crime. The foundations of sociological criminology can be traced to Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874) and Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). It employs the use of social statistics to investigate the influence of social factors on the propensity to commit crime. These factors include age, sex, season, climate, population composition, and poverty.According to Durkheim, crime is normal, inevitable, and is useful and occasionally even healthful for society (as it can pave the way for social change). Drawing from Durkheim, sociologists have examined the ways that anomie (i. e. , a breakdown of social norms) can produce deviance (a departure from accepted standards of behavior) in communities. The Chicago School Criminologists from the University of Chicago including Robert Ezra Park (1864-1944), Ernest W. Burgess (1886-1966), and Louis Wirth (1897-1952) determined that social forces operating in urban areas create a crime-promoting environment; crime is a social phenomenon.This challenged t he widely held belief that criminals were biologically or psychologically impaired or morally inferior. These criminologists felt that crime could be eradicated by improving social and economic conditions. Chicago School criminologist Walter Reckless hypothesized that crime occurs when children develop an inadequate self-image, rendering them incapable of controlling their misbehavior. Socialization Views Research during the 1930s and 1940s linked criminal behavior to the quality of an individual's relationship to important social processes, including education, family life, and peer relations.Edwin Sutherland, the preeminent American criminologist, noted that people learn criminal attitudes from older, more experienced offenders. Conflict theory – the view that human behavior is shaped by interpersonal conflict and that those who maintain social power will use it to further their own ends. Karl Marx (1818-1883), is the author of Communist Manifesto – a description of oppressive labor conditions prevalent during the rise of industrial capitalism. Marx felt that the character of every society is determined by its mode of production, and that the economic system controls all aspects of human life.Exploitation of the working class would eventually lead to class conflict and the end of the capitalist system. The social upheaval of the 1960s prompted criminologists to analyze the social conditions in the United States that promoted class conflict and crime. A critical criminologist examines and analyzes the social conditions that promote class conflict and crime. Is crime a product of the capitalist system? Developmental Criminology Delinquency research in the 1940s and 1950s conducted by Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck that focused on the early onset of delinquency as an indication of a criminal career.The most important factors related to persistent offending was family relations. Children with low intelligence, a background of mental disease, and a meso morph physique (a human physical type that is marked by greater than average muscular development) were most likely to become persistent offenders. Contemporary Criminology Classical theory had evolved into Rational Choice Theory – the view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act.Lombrosian biological positivism has evolved into contemporary biosocial and psychological trait theory views. Trait theory – the view that criminality is a product of abnormal biological or psychological traits. The original Chicago School sociological vision has transformed into Social Structure Theory – the view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime. Social Process Theory – the view that criminality is a function of people's interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society. Social process theorists now focus on upbringing and socialization.Many criminologists still view social and political conflict as the root cause of crime. The Gluecks' pioneering research has influenced a new generation of developmental theorists. Deviant or Criminal? How Criminologists Define Crime Deviance is any action that departs from the social norms of society. A deviant act becomes a crime when it is deemed socially harmful or dangerous; it will then be specifically defined, prohibited, and punished under the criminal law. Crime and deviance are often confused. The shifting definition of deviant behavior is closely associated with our concepts of crime.For example, are drawings of naked (fictional) children acts of deviance or criminal acts? Individuals, institutions, or government agencies may mount a campaign aimed at convincing the public and lawmakers that what is considered a deviant behavior is actually dangerous and must be criminalized. An example is Harry Anslinger's â€Å"moral crusade,† in the 1930s, urging the criminalization of marijuana. The Concept of Crime Criminologists align themselves with one of several schools of thought regarding what constitutes criminal behavior and what causes people to engage in criminality. The Consensus View of CrimeCrimes are behaviors that all elements of society consider to be repulsive. The criminal law reflects the values, beliefs, and opinions of society's mainstream. It implies that crime is a function of the beliefs, morality, and rules inherent in Western civilization, and that laws apply equally to all members of society. The Conflict View of Crime This theory depicts society as a collection of diverse groups that are in constant and continuing conflict. Groups, able to do so, assert political power to use the law and criminal justice system to advance their economic and social positions.Criminal laws are viewed as acts created to protect the haves from the have-nots. The poor go to prison, and the wealthy receive lenient sente nces for even the most serious breaches of law. The Interactionist View of Crime The definition of crime reflects the preferences and opinions of people who hold social power. These people use their influence to impose their definition of right and wrong on the rest of the population. Criminals are individuals that society labels as outcasts or deviants because they have violated social rules.Crimes are outlawed behaviors because society defines them that way, not because they are inherently evil or immoral acts. Interactionists see criminal law as conforming to the beliefs of â€Å"moral crusaders,† and are concerned with shifting moral and legal standards. Crime and the Criminal Law The concept of criminal law has been recognized for over 3,000 years. Code of Hammurabi — Law code issued during the reign of Hammurabi of Babylon (1780 BCE [Before our Common Era]). It called for compensation (restitution) for a robbery victim if the thief was not caught.This was thought to be fair because the state failed to maintain law and order. Since the state was responsible for restitution, the code reduced feuds and vengeance between families. Since this time, restitution has been in all criminal codes. Mosaic Code (1200 BCE) It is not only the foundation of Judeo-Christian moral teachings but is also a basis for the U. S. legal system. The code noted prohibitions against acts including murder, theft, perjury, and adultery . Common Law Judge-made law that came into existence during the reign of English King Henry II (1154-1189), when royal judges began to publish their decisions in local cases.A fixed body of legal rules develop from published judicial decisions. If a new rule was successfully applied in a number of different cases, it would become a precedent. Precedents would then be commonly applied in all similar cases – hence the term common law. Mala in se and mala prohibita We can categorize crimes as either mala in se or mala prohibita. Mala in se crimes are crimes such as murder, rape, or assault that are considered wrong in themselves, based on shared values. Mala prohibita crimes are not wrongs in themselves but are punished because they are prohibited by the government.There is often a lack of consensus about whether such actions (e. g. , use of marijuana, gambling, prostitution) should be illegal. People’s views of the seriousness of various crimes depend on their race, sex, class, and victimization experience. We may also categorize crimes as felonies (serious offenses) or misdemeanors (minor or petty crimes). Social Goals of Contemporary Criminal Law Enforcing social control Discouraging revenge Expressing public opinion and morality Deterring criminal behavior Punishing wrongdoing Creating equityMaintaining social order The Evolution of Criminal Law Criminal law is constantly evolving to reflect social and economic conditions. Change may be prompted by highly publicized cases that generate fear and concer n. Criminal law may change due to shifts in culture and social conventions . For example, in Lawrence v. Texas, the U. S. Supreme Court held that laws banning sodomy between consenting adults in a private residence were unconstitutional because they violated the due process rights of citizens because of their sexual orientation.Ethical Issues in Criminology – What and Whom to Study ? For criminological researchers, a definite ethical dilemma is presented when the data one collects is in fundamental opposition to the values and objectives of his or her funding agency. This is becoming an increasingly important ethical issue to consider as more criminological research projects are being funded by various external sources ranging from private enterprises to government initiatives.When confronted with such a conflict of interest, researchers are faced with the decision of whether to censor certain information to protect the mission of their funding agency, or alternatively to go against this mission in the interest of academic integrity. For example, a study funded by the private Corrections Corporation of America that asked researchers to compare the recidivism rates of offenders housed in state funded versus privately funded (like CCA) correctional facilities. Criminologists have focused on the poor and minorities while ignoring groups including middle-class white-collar crime and organized crime.Methods used in conducting research must ensure that: The subjects are randomly selected and are fully informed about the purpose of the research. The information must remain confidential, and the sources of information must be protected. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: In order to better understand the workings and motivations of a criminal gang, would it be ethical for a criminologist to hang out with gang members and watch as they commit crime? Should the criminologist report observed criminal gang behavior to the police? Which acts, now legal, would you make criminal, and which currently criminal acts would you legalize?Chapter 2- The Nature and Extent of Crime What is the primary sources of crime data? The FBI's Uniformed Crime Reporting (UCR) is the most cited source of U. S. crime statistics. The UCR Program publishes an annual document containing accounts of crimes known to police and information on arrests received on a voluntary basis from 17,000 state and local law enforcement agencies throughout the U. S. Part I crimes – the most serious – murder and non-negligent manslaughter; forcible rape; robbery; aggravated assault; burglary; larceny; arson; motor vehicle theft. Homicide is the most accurate and valid UCR statisticPart II crimes – all less serious crimes, including other assaults; forgery and counterfeiting; fraud; embezzlement; stolen property (buying, receiving, possessing); vandalism; weapons (carry, possessing, etc. ); prostitution; sex offenses; drug abuse violations; gambling; offenses against the family an d children; driving under the influence; liquor laws; drunkenness; disorderly conduct; vagrancy; all other offenses (except traffic). Unfounded or false complaints are eliminated, and the number of actual known offenses is reported whether or not an arrest is made.Cleared crimes are also reported – cleared via an arrest, charging, and being turned over for prosecution; or cleared by exceptional means (ex. , suspect left the country). Validity of the UCR The UCR's accuracy has long been suspect. Many serious crimes are not reported to police. Victims may consider the crime unimportant. Victims may not trust the police. Victims may not have property insurance. Victims fear reprisals. Victims may be involved in illegal activities themselves. Criticisms aside, the UCR continues to be one of the most widely used source of crime statistics.It is collected in a careful and systematic way. Measurement of year to year change accurate because any problems are stable over time. The Nati onal Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) is the result of efforts to provide a more comprehensive and detailed UCR; the NIBRS collects additional data on each reported crime incident, including a brief account of the incident, arrest, victim, and offender. Crime data may also be collected by means of survey research. People are asked about attitudes, beliefs, values, characteristics, and experiences with crime and victimization.The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) Nationwide survey of individual and household victimization conducted by the U. S. Census Bureau for the Bureau of Justice Statistics. It addresses the nonreporting issue. The NCVS sample size is 76,000 households and 135,000 individuals age 12 and older. Households stay in the sample for three years with new households rotated into the sample on an ongoing basis. In 1993, the NCVS was redesigned to provide detailed information on frequency and nature of rape, sexual assault, personal robbery, aggravated and simple assault, household burglary, theft, motor vehicle theft.Victim information provided in the NCVS includes age, sex, race, ethnicity, marital status, income, and education level. Crime information included in the NCVS includes time, place, use of weapons, nature of injury, and economic consequences. Validity of the NCVS It is a more complete picture of the nation's crime problem, and addresses the nonreporting issue. It helps us to understand why crimes are not reported to police The NCVS has methodological problems, however. There may be an overreporting due to victims' misinterpretation of events. There may be underreporting due to victims' embarrassment, fear, or forgetfulness.The future of the NCVS Its effectiveness has been undermined by budget limitations, and its sample size and methods of data collection have been altered. Multiple years of data are now combined in order to comment on change over time – this is less desirable than year-to-year change. Criminologi sts may also measure crime by the use of self-report surveys. Participants are asked to describe their recent and lifetime participation in criminal activity. Most self-report surveys focus on juvenile delinquency and youth crime. Validity of Self-Reports Expecting people to admit illegal acts is unreasonable.Some people exaggerate, forget, or are confused about their criminal acts. Self-reports may measure only nonserious, occasional delinquents while ignoring hard-core chronic offenders who may be institutionalized. â€Å"Monitoring the Future Survey† was an effort to improving the reliability of self-reports. Since 1978, the Monitoring the Future survey, conducted by the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research (ISR), has surveyed high school students across the U. S. It has shown that a surprising number of â€Å"typical teenagers† reported involvement in serious criminal behavior.If accurate, the MTF survey data indicate a much greater crime problem th an the UCR and NCVS. Evaluating Crime Data UCR – For serious crimes, the arrest data can provide a meaningful measure of criminal activity that other data sources cannot provide. Much criminological research is based on the UCR. NCVS – Includes unreported crime and personal characteristics of victims. It relies on personal recollections. The data consists of estimates based on limited samples of the US population, and does not include data on crime patterns, including murder and drug abuseSelf-report surveys – can provide information on personal characteristics of offenders, and rely on the honesty of criminal offenders and drug abusers. Crime Trends 1833-1860: gradual increase in the crime rate, especially violent crime Post-Civil War: Crime rate increased significantly for 15 years. 1880-WWI: Reported crimes decreased. Steady decline until the Depression (about 1930) when another crime wave was recorded. 1930 – 1960: Crime rates increased gradually. The homicide rate peaked around 1930. 1970s: The homicide rate sharply increased. Trends in Officially Recorded Crime 980-1990: Sharp increase in rates of robbery, motor vehicle theft, and homicide. There was also an increase in youth firearm homicide rates (adult homicide rates fell). Since 1990: Numbers of crime in decline. There has been a significant drop in UCR violent crimes, including murder, rape, robbery, and assault. The violence rate has dropped almost 40%. Property crime rates have also declined – a 10% decline in past decade. Homicide rate held relatively steady from 1950 – mid-1960. Homicide rate hit a peak of 10. 2 per 100,000 in 1980. 1980-1991: Homicide rate fluctuated between 8 and 10 per 100,000. 991-2008: Homicide rate dropped more than 40% supporting the fact that the overall crime rate is in remission. Trends in Victimization Similar to the UCR, NCVS data indicate that victimizations have declined significantly during the past 30 years. 1973: 44 mill ion victimizations Today: 23 million victimizations What the Future Holds Future crime rates may increase due to the large number of children who will enter their crime prone years. Future crime rates may also be offset by the aging of the population – large number of senior citizens. Technological and social factors may shape the direction of the crime rate.Technological developments have resulted in new classes of crime. Some argue that the narcissistic youth culture that stresses materialism is being replaced by more moralistic cultural values that may moderate potential crime rate growth. It is too early to predict if the overall downward trend in crime rates will continue into the foreseeable future. Crime Patterns The Ecology of Crime Day, season and climate – Most reported crimes occur during the warm summer months of July and August. Exceptions: Murders and robberies occur frequently in December and January.Crime rates are higher on the first day of the month. Temperature – crime rates seem to increase with rising temperatures and then begin to decline at 85 degrees when it may be too hot for any physical exertion. Some criminologists believe that crime rates rise with temperature. Research also indicates that a rising temperature will cause crimes such as domestic violence to continually increase, while other crimes (such as rape) will decline after temperatures rise to an extremely high level. Extreme temperatures cause stress and tension that prompts the body to release stress hormones.Hormonal activity has been linked to aggression. Regional differences Large, urban areas have the highest violence rates. Rural areas have the lowest per capita crime rates with the exception of low population resort areas with large seasonal populations. Use of Firearms Firearms are involved in about 20% of robberies, 10% of assaults, and over 5% of rapes. Two-thirds of all murders involve firearms; most are handguns. Criminals of all races/ethni cities are equally likely to use firearms in violent crimes. Ongoing debate over gun controlCriminologists favoring gun control: The proliferation of handguns and the high rate of lethal violence they cause is the single most significant factor separating the US crime problem from that of the rest of the developed world. Criminologists opposed to gun control: Kleck and Gertz have found that personal gun use can be a deterrent to crime. Social Class, Socioeconomic Conditions and Crime Crime is generally a lower-class phenomenon. Instrumental crimes occur when those on the lowest rung of the social ladder are unable to obtain desired goods and services via conventional means and may resort to illegal activities to obtain them.Expressive crimes: Those living in poverty engage in disproportionate amounts of crimes as a result of their rage, frustration, and anger against society. Alcohol and drug use is common in impoverished areas and helps to fuel violent crime. UCR data indicate crim e rates in inner-city, high-poverty areas are higher than those in suburban or wealthy areas. Surveys of prisoners consistently indicate prisoners were members of the lower class and unemployed or under-employed in the years prior to incarceration. As alternative explanation is that the relationship between official crime nd social class is a function of law enforcement practices. Social class and Self-reports Juveniles in all social classes commit crime. Serious crime is more prevalent in socially disorganized lower class areas. Less serious offenses are spread more evenly throughout the social structure. Community-level indicators of poverty and disorder are associated with the most serious violent crimes. Age and Crime Age is inversely related to criminality. Younger people commit more crime than older people and this relationship has been stable over time. The peak age for property crimes is believed to be 16.The peak age for violent crime is believed to be 18. Young people are arrested at a disproportionate rate to their numbers in the population. Adults age 45 and older account for a third of the population but account for less than 10% of crime arrests. The elderly comprise 12 % of the population but less than 1% of arrests. Aging out of crime People commit less crime as they age. Crime peaks in adolescence and then declines rapidly thereafter. Adults develop the ability to delay gratification, start wanting to take responsibility for their behavior, and adhere to conventional norms.Research: People who maintain successful marriages are more likely to desist from antisocial behavior than those whose marriages fail. Age and biology Some criminologists believe the key to abstaining and aging out is linked to human biology. Neurotransmitters (serotonin and dopamine) play a role in aggression. Dopamine facilitates offensive behavior. During adolescence, dopamine increases while serotonin is reduced. Change in brain chemistry parallels the aging out process. Gender and Crime Male crime rates are much higher than female crime rates. The male-female arrest ratio is almost four males to one female.Murder arrests: Eight males to one female Self-report data (Monitoring the Future data as an example) indicate males self-report more crime but not to the degree suggested by official data. Over the past decade the male arrest rates have declined by 9%; female arrest rates have increased by 9%. Increased female arrest rates especially for robbery and burglary Conclusion: During the slowing of the overall crime rates, women have increased their participation in crime. Trait differences Lombroso's masculinity hypothesis – a few â€Å"masculine† females were responsible for the handful of crimes that women committed.These women lacked typical female traits of piety, maternity, undeveloped intelligence, and weakness. Such viewpoints are no longer taken seriously. Criminologists still link antisocial behavior to hormonal influences, how ever. Male sex hormones (androgens) account for aggressive male behavior. Socialization Differences Girls are socialized to be less aggressive than boys. Cognitive Differences Superior verbal ability may allow girls and women to talk rather than fight. Social/Political Differences Liberal feminist theory – female crime rates linked to the social and economic roles of women in society.Lower female crime rates explained by women's â€Å"second-class† economic and social positions. Female and male crime rates would converge as women's social roles change and became more like men's. The rapid increase in female crime rates seems to support liberal feminist theory. Race and Crime Minority group members are involved in a disproportionate share of criminal activity. African Americans comprise 12% of the population, yet account for 38% of violent crime arrests, 30% of property crime arrests, and a disproportionate amount of Part II arrests. What do data indicate? Data may refl ect true racial differences in the crime rate.Data may reflect bias in the justice process. Monitoring the Future and other self-report data find little evidence of racial disparity in crimes committed. The delinquent behavior of black and white teenagers are generally similar. Differences in arrest statistics may indicate a differential selection process by police. Critics charge police officers routinely use racial profiling to stop African Americans and search their cars without probable cause or reasonable suspicion. It is improbable that police discretion and/or bias, alone, could account for proportions of minorities arrested for violent crimes, however.Racism and discrimination Some criminologists view black crime as a function of socialization in society – the black family torn apart and black culture destroyed beyond recovery. Racism is still an element of daily life in the black community. It undermines confidence in the justice system and faith in social and politi cal institutions. Racial threat theory – As the percentage of African Americans in the population increases, so does the amount of social control that the justice system aims at blacks. Significant research exists to support that the justice system may be racially biased.Black and Latino adults are less likely than whites to receive bail in violent crime cases. Minority juveniles are more likely than white juveniles to be kept in detention pending trial in juvenile court. Indigent or unemployed African Americans are more likely than whites to receive longer prison sentences. Economic and social disparity Racial and ethnic minorities are often forced to live in high crime areas. Racial and ethnic minorities face a greater degree of social isolation and economic deprivation than the white majority. Black youths are forced to attend essentially segregated, under-funded, and deteriorated schools.Family dissolution Family dissolution is tied to low employment rates among black mal es, leading to strained marriages. Increased risk of early death by disease and violence results in a large number of single, female-headed households in black communities. Weakened or disrupted families result in compromised social control. Divorce and separation rates are significantly associated with homicide rates in black communities. Chronic Offenders/Criminal Careers A small group of career or chronic offenders account for the majority of all criminal offenses.Wolfgang, Figlio, and Sellin's 1972 study, Delinquency in a Birth Cohort The â€Å"Chronic 6%† – boys arrested five times or more, who accounted for six percent of the total sample of 9,945 accounted for 51. 9% of all the offenses committed by the cohort, 71% of homicides, 73% of rapes, 82% of robberies, and 69% of aggravated assaults. Arrests and court experiences do little to deter the chronic offender. Female chronic offenders rare – 1% What Causes Chronicity? Early onset – Children who ha ve been exposed to a variety of personal and social problems, at an early age, are the most at risk to repeat offending.Factors characterizing the chronic offender: problems in the home and school; getting arrested before age 15; low intellectual development; and parental drug involvement. Implications of the Chronic Offender Concept Discovery of the chronic offender has revitalized criminological theory. It is unlikely that social conditions alone can cause chronic offending. Traditional criminological theories have failed to distinguish between occasional and chronic offenders. The chronic offender has become a central focus of crime control policy.Goals of sentencing polices have shifted from rehabilitation to incapacitation. Three strikes laws – rules for repeat offenders that require long sentences without parole for conviction of a third or higher-order felony. Some states like California and Washington state have passed three strikes laws for repeat offenders. Three fe lony offenses require up to a life-term of imprisonment. Truth-in-Sentencing is the requirement that offenders serve a substantial portion of their sentences before release on parole (usually 85% of their sentence) for a violent crime. This policy can increase imprisonment costs.DISCUSSION TOPICS Would you answer honestly if participating in a national crime survey asking about your criminal behavior, including your drinking and drug use? Why or why not? How would your honesty and dishonesty impact self-report studies? With regard to gender differences in the crime rate, why do you think that males are more violent than females? Considering the crimes listed as Part I offenses. Are these the most serious crimes in society? Would you add or delete any crimes or behaviors to/from the list? If so, which crimes and why? Chapter 3 Victims and VictimizationThe Classical School of criminology emphasizes that people are rational beings and are free to choose the behaviors they engage in. Vi ctimization theories suggest the same thing in that victims choose to engage in risky activities or choose not to take the time to make themselves less appealing to offenders. Victimology is the scientific study of victims. Victimization’s Toll on Society NCVS: 23 million victimizations per year Costs of victimization: Damaged property; pain and suffering; involvement of criminal justice system; medical costs, lost wages; reduced quality of life, fearTotal loss related to criminal victimization: $450 billion annually; $1,800 per person Individual Costs Assault: $9,400 The average murder costs about $3 million. Individuals suffering a violent victimization during adolescence earn about $82,000 less than non-victims due to physical and psychological problems that impede educational and economic success. Some victims become physically disabled. Blaming the victim Innuendos and insinuations from friends, family. Victim blaming is especially painful for rape victims. Negative reac tions from professionals. Negative reactions from family and friends.Negative reactions from either source reinforces uncertainty about whether the victim's experience qualifies as rape. Sympathetic and responsive support help rape victims maintain confidence and results in willingness to report their victimizations. Long-Term Stress Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A condition with symptoms including depression, anxiety, and self-destructive behavior. It is a common problem when victims do not receive adequate support. Rape victims are particularly susceptible to PTSD. Adolescent Stress Kids who experience traumatic sexual experiences later suffer psychological deficits.Many run away to escape their environment. Others suffer post-traumatic mental problems. Stress does not end in childhood – may have low self-esteem and may be suicidal as adults. They may be re-abused as adults. Abuse as a child may lead to despair, depression, and homelessness as adults. Homeless wome n are likely to have suffered childhood physical and sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and likely to have a history of mental problems. Relationship Stress Victims of spouse abuse suffer an extremely high prevalence of psychological problems. Abusive spouses are likely to abuse their victims psychologically.Fear Victims fear they will be re-victimized. Victims may fear forms of crimes they have not yet experienced. People who have been assaulted fear their homes will be burglarized. Rape victims are especially fearful. People may relocate if they hear that a friend or neighbor has been victimized. Fear is escalated by media accounts of crime and violence. Antisocial Behavior People who are crime victims may be more likely to commit crime themselves. The abuse-crime phenomenon is referred to as the cycle of violence. The Nature of Victimization The Social Ecology of VictimizationLocation – Violent crime is more likely to take place in an open, public area during daytime or e arly evening. Time – Serious violent crimes (rape, aggravated assault): after 6:00 p. m. Less serious violent crimes (unarmed robberies): during the daytime Neighborhood characteristics – Central city: higher rates of theft and violence than suburban areas Murder: significantly higher risk in disorganized inner-city areas Crime in schools During, before, and after-school activities, adult supervision is minimal. Unattended valuables make attractive targets. Ages 12-18: 1. 7 million victims of nonfatal crimes at school.Eight percent of students in ninth to twelfth grades reported being threatened or injured. Twenty-two percent of ninth to twelfth graders report illegal drugs were made available to them on school property. Eighty-six percent of public schools report at least one violent crime occurred at their school. The Victim’s Household Household vulnerability Most vulnerable: African American, western, and urban homes Less vulnerable: Non-African American, No rtheast Ownership: Rental homes more so than owned homes Factors impacting decreased household victimization – Population movement from urban to suburban and rural; family size has been reduced.Victim Characteristics Gender Except for rape and sexual assault, males are more likely to be victims of violent crime. Women are significantly more likely to be victimized by someone they know or with whom they live. Intimate partner violence seems to be declining. Research indicates that economic inequality is significantly related to female victimization rates. Age Young people face a much greater victimization risk than older people. Victimization risk diminishes rapidly after age 25. Elderly – vulnerable to frauds, scams, stolen checks, purse snatchings, crimes in long-term care facilities. Social statusAcross all gender, age, and racial groups, the poorest are the most likely to be victimized. The homeless suffer high rates of assault. The wealthy are more likely to be tar gets of personal theft crimes. Race and ethnicity African Americans are twice as likely as non-African-Americans to be victims of violent crimes. There has been a significant decline in victimization rates for both groups, however. Marital status Never-married individuals are victimized more those married individuals. Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization risk. Risk is influenced by age and lifestyle. Repeat victimizationPersons and households previously victimized have significantly higher risk of revictimization. Target vulnerability – Victim's physical weakness or psychological distress makes them easy targets. Target gratifiability – Victims have some quality, possession, skill or attribute an offender wants to obtain. Target antagonism – Victim's characteristics arouse anger, jealousy, or destructive impulses in potential offenders The Victims and Their Criminals Males are more likely to be violently victimized by a stranger; females by a friend , acquaintance, or intimate. Crimes tend to be intraracial.Over half of all nonfatal personal crimes are committed by people known to the victim. Women are especially vulnerable to crime by people they know. Six of every ten rape or sexual assault victims state the offender was known to them. Women are more likely than men to be robbed by a friend/acquaintance. Theories of Victimization Victim precipitation theory – the view that victims may initiate, either actively or passively, the confrontation that leads to their victimization. Active precipitation – occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even attack first.Passive precipitation – occurs when victims exhibit some personal characteristic than unknowingly threatens or encourages attackers. Victim impulsivity – male and female victims score high on impulsivity tests. They may be abrasive, obnoxious, or antagonistic; they may lack self-control; they may have a physical ra ther than mental orientation; they may be risk takers and fail to take precautions. Research shows a strong association between victimization risk and impulsive personality. Lifestyle theories – views on how people become crime victims because of lifestyles that increase their exposure to criminal offenders.Victimization is increased by associating with young men, going out at night, living in urban areas. Victimization is reduced by staying home at night, staying out of public areas, living in rural areas. Crime is not a random occurrence; rather, a function of the victim's lifestyle. High risk lifestyles Drinking, taking drugs, running away, getting involved in crime. Males' lifestyles expose them to risk more so than females' lifestyles. The greater the number of girls in a male's peer group, the lower their chances of victimization.The greater the involvement with gangs, guns, and drugs, the greater the risk of being shot/killed. Most at risk of homicide: kids who have se rved time and who have a history of family violence. Lifestyle risks continue into adulthood. College lifestyle Partying and recreational drug use increase risk of victimization. Coeds face higher risk of sexual assault than do females in the general population. Criminal lifestyle Involvement in gangs – increases risk of victimization for males and females. Carrying a weapon – males who carry weapons are three times more likely to be victimized than males who do not (33% versus 10%).Deviant place theory – the view that victimization is primarily a function of where people live. The greater the exposure to dangerous places, the more likely people will become victims of crime. People are prone to victimization because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas. Neighborhood crime levels may be more significant than individual characteristics or lifestyle for determining victimization. Deviant places – Poor, densely populated, highly transient nei ghborhoods in which commercial and residential properties exist side-by-side.They are home to â€Å"demoralized kinds of people† who are easy targets: addicts, homeless, elderly poor. Safety precautions Effect of safety precautions is less pronounced in poor areas. The presence of numerous motivated offenders requires safety precautions. Routine Activities Theory – the view that victimization results from the interaction of three everyday factors: the availability of suitable targets, the absence of capable guardians, and the presence of motivated offenders. Suitable targets – objects of crime (persons or property) that are attractive and readily available.Crime and everyday life Crime began to increase as the country sifted from rural to urban environments. The middle class fled from inner cities to suburbs, promoting a unique set of routine activities promoting victimization. Research support for Routine Activities Theory Crime rates increased between 1960 and 1980 because the number of guardians home during the day decreased as a result of increased female participation in the workforce. As adult unemployment rates increase, the juvenile homicide arrest rates decrease. Availability and cost of goods – as costs decline, so to do burglary rates.Caring for the Victim President Ronald Reagan created the Task Force of Victims of Crime in 1982. Suggested a balance be achieved between recognizing victim's rights and the defendant's due process rights. As a result, Congress passed the Omnibus Victim and Witness Protection Act – Victim impact statements at sentencing in federal criminal cases Greater protection for witnesses More stringent bail laws Use of restitution in criminal cases 1984: Comprehensive Crime Control Act and Victims of Crime Act Authorized federal funding for state victim compensation and assistance projectsVictim Service Programs Victim-witness assistance programs – 2,000 across the U. S. Victim Compensat ion Victims receive compensation from the state. Compensations programs differ. Many programs lack adequate funding and organization. Compensation for medical bills, loss of wages and future earnings, counseling, burial expenses, emergency assistance. Awards typically range from $100 to $15,000 Victim of Crime Act (1984) – money derived from penalties and fines imposed on federal offenders used to fund state compensation boards. $300 million per year. Victim AdvocatesCounselors who guide victims through the criminal justice process Research: rape survivors assigned victim advocates are more likely to file police reports, less likely to be treated negatively by police, report less distress from medical experiences. Court advocates – prepare victims and witnesses re: the court process. May provide counselors and transportation to and from court. May reduce victim trauma. Victim Impact statements Allowed by most jurisdictions Victim tells of victimization experiences and effects at sentencing. Research Some research shows victim impact statements result in higher incarceration ates, while other research does not show an appreciable effect. Victim-Offender Reconciliation Programs (VORPs) Mediated face-to-face encounters between victims and their attackers Over 120 programs handling 16,000 cases per year Designed for misdemeanor offenses, now also used with felony offenses Victims’ Rights Every state has a Victims' Bill of Rights: To be notified of proceedings and the status of the defendant To be present at criminal justice proceedings To make a statement at sentencing To receive restitution from a convicted offender To be consulted before a case is dismissed or plea agreement entered To a speedy trialTo keep the victim's contact information confidential Sex offender registration laws have been adopted at federal level and by most states. Criminology in the News Following a felony assault conviction, Chris Brown was sentenced to 5 yearsâ€℠¢ probation and 180 days of community service. He is serving his community service near his home in Richmond, VA, and he has done yard work at a police horse stable, washed government cars, picked up trash, and cleaned graffiti. Additionally, Brown must undergo a year of domestic violence counseling. By November 25, 2010, Brown had completed 581 hours of community service.In January 2011, Brown completed mandated domestic violence counseling. In March 2011, Brown picked up a chair and smashed a window in a dressing room at the Good Morning America studio in Manhattan following an interview in which he is asked about his assault conviction. The studio did not press charges. During his childhood, Brown's stepfather was apparently, abusive towards his mother. At age 11, Brown warned his mother that he would very likely go to jail before age 15 for killing his stepdad over what he'd done to her:  Ã¢â‚¬Å" I just want you to know that I love you.But  I’m gonna take a baseball b at one day while you at work, and I’m gonna kill him. † His stepfather, who lived with Brown and his mother in a trailer park, also once attempted suicide by shooting himself in the head. The bullet missed his brain but went straight through his eyes, leaving him permanently blind. Brown recalled what it was like to grow up with so much violence: â€Å"When you’re blind, your senses are heightened, like your smell, hearing, your sense of touch. You can move and maneuver around your sight. But he used to hit my mom†¦.He made me terrified all the time, terrified like I had to pee on myself. I remember one night he made her nose bleed. I was crying and thinking,  Ã¢â‚¬ËœI’m just gonna go crazy on him one day†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ I hate him to this day. † Rihanna's Upbringing Rihanna's childhood was marred by her father's struggles with addictions to alcohol and crack cocaine and her parents' marital problems—they divorced when she was 14 years old. DISCUSSION TOPICS Do you agree with the author's assessment that a school is one of the most dangerous locations in the community? Do you think your high school was a dangerous environment?Why or why not? What would you advise female college students do to lower their risk of being sexually assaulted? How does your advice relate to the â€Å"college lifestyle? † How should male college students be advised regarding their potential for committing sexual assault? Why is it that society places more blame on females than males when it comes to sexual assault and the college lifestyle? How can this imbalance be remedied? Chapter 4 Choice Theory: Because They Want To The criminal justice system in the U. S. is based on the rational choice theory and deterrence.The criminal justice system emphasizes that criminals choose to commit crime, and thus they must be punished. This will then deter them from committing crime again. Since certainty and swiftness are impossible in the U. S. , the U. S. criminal justice system emphasizes severity. However, as the chapter notes, severity is but one of the three elements of deterrence and some argue that it is the weakest. Rational Choice Theory (Choice Theory) – the premise that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the probable costs and benefits of an illegal act.Its roots are in the classical school of criminology developed by Cesare Beccaria. The classical approach was replaced by positivist criminology that focused on internal and external factors rather than personal choice and decision making. In the late 1960s, criminologists re-embraced classical ideas. Becker argued that except for a few mentally ill people, criminals behave in rational ways when deciding to commit crime. Wilson noted that offenders value the excitement and thrill of crime, have a low stake in conformity, and are willing to take greater risks than the average person.Evaluating the Risk s of Crime Personal factors – money, revenge, thrills Situational factors – target availability, security measures, police presence Burglars choose targets based on value, novelty, resale potential. The decision to commit crime is enhanced by the promise of easy gain with low risk. Those that choose to forgo crime may feel that they stand a good chance of being caught and punished. They fear the consequences of punishment; they risk losing the respect of peers, their reputation may be damaged, and they may experience guilt or shame. Crime is Both Offense and Offender-SpecificOffense-specific – the idea that offenders react selectively to the characteristics of particular crimes. Offense-specific factors include: Evaluating the target yield Probability of security devices Police patrol effectiveness Availability of a getaway car Ease of selling stolen merchandise Presence of occupants Presence of neighbors Presence of guard dogs Escape routes Entry points and exi ts Offender-specific – the idea that offenders evaluate their skills, motives, needs, and fears before deciding to commit crime. Offender-specific factors include: Possession of necessary skills Immediate need for money or valuablesExistence of legitimate financial alternatives Resources to commit the crime Fear of expected apprehension and punishment Option of alternative criminal acts Physical ability Offender's Economic Need/Opportunity A small number of prostitutes choose to supplement their income via prostitution. Drug users report increasing their criminal involvement proportionate to the costs of their habits. Some offenders are misled about the financial rewards of crime. Evaluating personal traits and experience Career criminals learn limitations of their expertise. Criminals appear to be more impulsive and have less self-control.Some criminal opportunities are simply too good to pass up. Criminal expertise Criminals report learning techniques to help avoid detectio n. Women are drawn into dealing drugs learn the trade in a businesslike manner. Choosing the place of crime Criminals carefully choose where they will commit crime. Drug dealers evaluate the desirability of sales area, preferring the middle of a long block due to visual advantages. Choosing targets Burglars check if dwelling is occupied. Burglars track predictable behavior patterns of occupants. Burglars prefer working between 9:00 and 11:00 a. m. nd in the afternoon when parents are working or transporting children to and from school. Is Crime Rational? Target selection seems highly rational. Auto thieves selective in choice of targets for stripping. Burglars choose targets based on value and resale potential. Burglars like to work close to home where they blend in and will not get lost when returning home with their loot. Is Drug Use Rational? At its onset, drug use is controlled by rational decision making. Drug dealers approach their profession in a businesslike fashion. Can Vio lence Be Rational? Violent criminals select suitable targets based on vulnerability.Robbers choose targets in familiar areas where they have knowledge of escape routes – referred to as â€Å"awareness space. † That avoid free-standing buildings where they can be surrounded by police. They shy away from victims who may be armed and potentially dangerous. Robbers may target those with â€Å"dirty hands,† such as drug dealers. They may choose targets in order to send a message. Why Do People Commit Crime? â€Å"Edgework† – Crime is a more attractive alternative than law-abiding behavior. This is due to the adrenaline rush that comes from the exhilarating, momentary integration of danger, risk, and skill. The Seduction of CrimeKatz: There are immediate benefits to criminality and seductions precede the commission of crime and draw offenders into law violations. Vanquishing opponents The thrill of getting away with crime due to personal competence †“ â€Å"sneaky thrills† A criminal lifestyle may be beneficial to those experiencing stress. Antisocial behavior gives adolescents the opportunity to exert control over their lives. Controlling Crime Situational crime prevention – a method of crime prevention that seeks to eliminate or reduce particular crimes in narrow settings. Criminal activity can be reduced if planners are aware of the characteristics of sites and ituations that are at risk of crime. Criminals acts avoided if: Targets are carefully guarded. The means to commit crime are controlled. Potential offenders are carefully monitored. Reducing opportunity. Defensible space – the principle that crime can be prevented or displaced by modifying the physical environment to reduce the opportunity individuals have to commit crime. Oscar Newman's defensible space – crime can be prevented or displaced via the use of residential designs that reduce criminal opportunity. Crime Prevention Strategies I ncrease the effort needed to commit crime Unbreakable glass on storefrontsLocking gates, fencing yards Installing brighter lights Owner's photo on credit cards Security devices on cars Increase the risk of committing crime Crime discouragers – people who serve as guardians of property or people Reduce the rewards of crime Marking property so it is difficult to sell Gender-neutral phone listings Tracking systems Induce guilt: increase shame Publishing â€Å"John lists† Reduce provocation Earlier closing times for bars and pubs Anti-bullying programs in schools Remove excuses Electronic roadside speed displays The Costs and Benefits of Situational Crime PreventionHidden Benefits Diffusion – an effect that occurs when efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally prevent another. Discouragement – an effect that occurs when crime control efforts targeting a particular locale help reduce crime in surrounding areas and populations. Hidden Costs Displacement â₠¬â€œ an effect that occurs when crime control efforts simply move or redirect offenders to less heavily guarded alternative targets. Extinction – an effect that occurs when crime reduction programs produce a short-term positive effect, but benefits dissipate as criminals adjust to new conditions.Replacement – an effect that occurs when criminals try new offenses they had previously avoided because situational crime prevention programs neutralized their crime of choice. General deterrence – a crime control policy that depends on the fear of criminal penalties, convincing the potential offender that the pains associated with crime outweigh its benefits. Crime can be controlled via increasing the real or perceived threat of criminal punishment. Certainty of Punishment If the certainty of arrest, conviction, and sanctioning increases, crime rates should decline.Crime will persist if offenders believe that, if caught, they have a good chance of escaping punishment. R esearch indicates a direct relationship between crime rates and the certainty of punishment. Police and Certainty of Punishment Increasing the number of police officers on the street should cut the crime rate. The deterrent effect of police has been supported by research. Proactive, aggressive law enforcement is more effective than routine patrol. Severity of Punishment The threat of severe punishment should reduced the crime rate. There is little consensus regarding the severity of punishment, however. Speed of Punishment and DeterrenceThe faster punishment is applied and the more closely punishment is linked to the crime, the more likely it will serve as a deterrent. Deterrent effect neutralized if there is a significant time lag between apprehension and punishment. Elapsed time between conviction and execution: over ten years in many death penalty cases. Inter-relationship of severity, certainty, and speed; the factors may influence one another. Certainty of punishment seems to h ave a great impact than its severity or speed. Critique of General Deterrence Rationality Some offenders suffer from personality disorders that impair judgment.Elevated emotional state of sex offenders negates the deterrent effect of the law. Alcohol impedes a person's ability to think rationally. System effectiveness American legal system is not very effective – only 10% of all serious crimes result in apprehension. Many crimes go unreported. Police discretion impacts effect of deterrence. Odds of receiving a prison sentence is less than 20 per 1,000 crimes committed. â€Å"Deterrability† Deterrence impacts people differently. Threat of formal sanctions is irrelevant to high-risk offenders. Personality and mental disorders make people immune to deterrent power of the law.Some crimes are more deterrable than others – minor offenses easier to deter; serious crimes harder to deter. Specific deterrence – the view that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that offenders will never repeat their criminal acts (recidivism). There is no clear-cut evidence that punishment effectively deters criminals. One possible exception is domestic violence. Short-term effect: when police take formal action (arrest), offenders are less likely to recidivate. Long-term effect: effect of arrest quickly decays and may actually escalate the frequency of repeat domestic violence.Arrest and punishment seems to have little effect on chronic and experienced offenders. Two-thirds of all convicted offenders are rearrested within three years of their release from prison. Incarceration may slow or delay recidivism in the short-term but the overall probability of re-arrest is not reduced. The harshest punishments may increase crime. Punishment may result in defiance rather than deterrence. Stigma of harsh punishment locks offenders into a criminal career. Criminals may believe that the likelihood of getting caught twice for the same type of crime is remote.Experie ncing the harshest punishments may cause severe psychological problems. In neighborhoods where everyone has a criminal record, the effect of punishment erodes and offenders feel victimized. Incapacitation effect – the view that if more criminals are sent to prison during their prime crime years, it will reduce their lifetime opportunity to commit crime. Can Incapacitation Reduce Crime? Some experts find incapacitation reduces crime. Crime rate has dropped while prison population has risen. Economist Levitt concludes that each person behind bars results in a 15% decrease in serious crimes per year.Some experts argue against incapacitation. They feel that there is little evidence that incapacitating criminals will deter them from future criminality. Their additional views: Prison experiences expose first-time offenders to high-ri